Donald Trump v. United States of America

A federal grand jury indicted former President Donald J. Trump on four counts for conduct that occurred during his Presidency following theNovember 2020 election. The indictment alleged that after losing that election, Trump conspired to overturn it by spreading knowingly false claims of election fraud to obstruct the collecting, counting, and certifying of the election results. Trump moved to dismiss the indictment based on Presidential immunity, arguing that a President has absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for actions performed within the

outer perimeter of his official responsibilities, and that the indictment's allegations fell within the core of his official duties. The District Court denied Trump's motion to dismiss, holding that former Presidents do not possess federal criminal immunity for any acts. The D. C. Circuit affirmed. Both the District Court and the D. C. Circuit declined to decide whether the indicted conduct involved official acts.



Under our constitutional structure of separated powers, the nature

of Presidential power entitles a former President to absolute immunity

from criminal prosecution for actions within his conclusive and preclu-

sive constitutional authority. And he is entitled to at least presump-

tive immunity from prosecution for all his official acts. There is no

immunity for unofficial acts. Pp. 5–43.



(a) This case is the first criminal prosecution in our Nation's history

of a former President for actions taken during his Presidency. Deter-

mining whether and under what circumstances such a prosecution

may proceed requires careful assessment of the scope of Presidential

power under the Constitution. The nature of that power requires that

a former President have some immunity from criminal prosecution for

official acts during his tenure in office.



President's exercise of his core constitutional powers, this immunity

must be absolute. As for his remaining official actions, he is entitled

to at least presumptive immunity. Pp. 5–15.



(1) Article II of the Constitution vests "executive Power” in "a

President of the United States of America.” §1, cl. 1. The President

has duties of "unrivaled gravity and breadth.” Trump v. Vance, 591

U. S. 786, 800. His authority to act necessarily "stem[s] either from an

act of Congress or from the Constitution itself.” Youngstown Sheet &

Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U. S. 579, 585. In the latter case, the Presi-

dent's authority is sometimes "conclusive and preclusive.” Id., at 638

(Jackson, J., concurring). When the President exercises such author-

ity, Congress cannot act on, and courts cannot examine, the Presi-

dent's actions. It follows that an Act of Congress—either a specific one

targeted at the President or a generally applicable one—may not crim-

inalize the President's actions within his exclusive constitutional

power. Neither may the courts adjudicate a criminal prosecution that

examines such Presidential actions. The Court thus concludes that

the President is absolutely immune from criminal prosecution for con-

duct within his exclusive sphere of constitutional authority. Pp. 6–9.



(2) Not all of the President's official acts fall within his "conclusive

and preclusive” authority. The reasons that justify the President's ab-

solute immunity from criminal prosecution for acts within the scope of

his exclusive constitutional authority do not extend to conduct in areas

where his authority is shared with Congress. To determine the Presi-

dent's immunity in this context, the Court looks primarily to the Fram-

ers' design of the Presidency within the separation of powers, prece-

dent on Presidential immunity in the civil context, and criminal cases

where a President resisted prosecutorial demands for documents. P.

9.



(i) The Framers designed the Presidency to provide for a "vigor-

ous” and "energetic” Executive. The Federalist No. 70, pp. 471–472 (J.

Cooke ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton). They vested the President with "su-

pervisory and policy responsibilities of utmost discretion and sensitiv-

ity.” Nixon v. Fitzgerald, 457 U. S. 731, 750. Appreciating the "unique

risks” that arise when the President's energies are diverted by pro-

ceedings that might render him "unduly cautious in the discharge of

his official duties,” the Court has recognized Presidential immunities

and privileges "rooted in the constitutional tradition of the separation

of powers and supported by our history.” Id., at 749, 751, 752, n. 32.

In Fitzgerald, for instance, the Court concluded that a former Presi-

dent is entitled to absolute immunity from "damages liability for acts

within the 'outer perimeter' of his official responsibility.” Id., at 756.

The Court's "dominant concern” was to avoid "diversion of the President's attention during the decisionmaking process caused by needlessworry as to the possibility of damages actions stemming from any par-

ticular official decision.” Clinton v. Jones, 520 U. S. 681, 694, n. 19.

By contrast, when prosecutors have sought evidence from the Pres-

ident, the Court has consistently rejected Presidential claims of abso-

lute immunity. During the treason trial of former Vice President Aa-

ron Burr, for instance, Chief Justice Marshall rejected President

Thomas Jefferson's claim that the President could not be subjected to

a subpoena. Marshall simultaneously recognized, however, the exist-

ence of a "privilege” to withhold certain "official paper[s].” United

States v. Burr, 25 F. Cas. 187, 192 (No. 14,694) (CC Va.). And when a

subpoena issued to President Richard Nixon, the Court rejected his

claim of "absolute privilege.” United States v. Nixon, 418 U. S. 683,

703. But recognizing "the public interest in candid, objective, and even

blunt or harsh opinions in Presidential decisionmaking,” it held that a

"presumptive privilege” protects Presidential communications. Id., at

708. Because that privilege "relates to the effective discharge of a

President's powers,” id., at 711, the Court deemed it "fundamental to

the operation of Government and inextricably rooted in the separation

of powers under the Constitution.” Id., at 708. Pp. 9–12.



(ii) Criminally prosecuting a President for official conduct un-

doubtedly poses a far greater threat of intrusion on the authority and

functions of the Executive Branch than simply seeking evidence in his

possession. The danger is greater than what led the Court to recognize

absolute Presidential immunity from civil damages liability—that the

President would be chilled from taking the "bold and unhesitating ac-

tion” required of an independent Executive. Fitzgerald, 457 U. S., at

745. Although the President might be exposed to fewer criminal pros-

ecutions than civil damages suits, the threat of trial, judgment, and

imprisonment is a far greater deterrent and plainly more likely to dis-

tort Presidential decisionmaking than the potential payment of civil

damages. The hesitation to execute the duties of his office fearlessly

and fairly that might result when a President is making decisions un-

der "a pall of potential prosecution,” McDonnell v. United States, 579

U. S. 550, 575, raises "unique risks to the effective functioning of gov-

ernment,” Fitzgerald, 457 U. S., at 751. But there is also a compelling

"public interest in fair and effective law enforcement.” Vance, 591

U. S., at 808.



Taking into account these competing considerations, the Court con-

cludes that the separation of powers principles explicated in the

Court's precedent necessitate at least a presumptive immunity from

criminal prosecution for a President's acts within the outer perimeter

of his official responsibility. Such an immunity is required to safe-

guard the independence and effective functioning of the Executive

Branch, and to enable the President to carry out his constitutional du-

ties without undue caution. At a minimum, the President must be

immune from prosecution for an official act unless the Government can

show that applying a criminal prohibition to that act would pose no

"dangers of intrusion on the authority and functions of the Executive

Branch.” Fitzgerald, 457 U. S., at 754. Pp. 12–15.



(3) As for a President's unofficial acts, there is no immunity. Alt-

hough Presidential immunity is required for official actions to ensure

that the President's decisionmaking is not distorted by the threat of

future litigation stemming from those actions, that concern does not

support immunity for unofficial conduct. Clinton, 520 U. S., at 694,

and n. 19. The separation of powers does not bar a prosecution predi-

cated on the President's unofficial acts. P. 15.



(b) The first step in deciding whether a former President is entitled

to immunity from a particular prosecution is to distinguish his official

from unofficial actions. In this case, no court thus far has drawn that

distinction, in general or with respect to the conduct alleged in partic-

ular. It is therefore incumbent upon the Court to be mindful that it is

"a court of final review and not first view.” Zivotofsky v. Clinton, 566

U. S. 189, 201. Critical threshold issues in this case are how to differ-

entiate between a President's official and unofficial actions, and how

to do so with respect to the indictment's extensive and detailed allega-

tions covering a broad range of conduct. The Court offers guidance on

those issues. Pp. 16–32.



(1) When the President acts pursuant to "constitutional and stat-

utory authority,” he takes official action to perform the functions of his

office. Fitzgerald, 456 U. S., at 757. Determining whether an action

is covered by immunity thus begins with assessing the President's au-

thority to take that action. But the breadth of the President's "discre-

tionary responsibilities” under the Constitution and laws of the United

States frequently makes it "difficult to determine which of [his] innu-

merable 'functions' encompassed a particular action.” Id., at 756. The

immunity the Court has recognized therefore extends to the "outer pe-

rimeter” of the President's official responsibilities, covering actions so

long as they are "not manifestly or palpably beyond [his] authority.”

Blassingame v. Trump, 87 F. 4th 1, 13 (CADC).



In dividing official from unofficial conduct, courts may not inquire

into the President's motives. Such a "highly intrusive” inquiry would

risk exposing even the most obvious instances of official conduct to ju-

dicial examination on the mere allegation of improper purpose. Fitz-

gerald, 457 U. S., at 756. Nor may courts deem an action unofficial

merely because it allegedly violates a generally applicable law. Oth-

erwise, Presidents would be subject to trial on "every allegation that

an action was unlawful,” depriving immunity of its intended effect.

Ibid. Pp. 17–19.



(2) With the above principles in mind, the Court turns to the con-

duct alleged in the indictment. Certain allegations—such as those in-

volving Trump's discussions with the Acting Attorney General—are

readily categorized in light of the nature of the President's official re-

lationship to the office held by that individual. Other allegations—

such as those involving Trump's interactions with the Vice President,

state officials, and certain private parties, and his comments to the

general public—present more difficult questions. Pp. 19–30.



(i) The indictment alleges that as part of their conspiracy to

overturn the legitimate results of the 2020 presidential election,

Trump and his co-conspirators attempted to leverage the Justice De-

partment's power and authority to convince certain States to replace

their legitimate electors with Trump's fraudulent slates of electors.



According to the indictment, Trump met with the Acting Attorney

General and other senior Justice Department and White House offi-

cials to discuss investigating purported election fraud and sending a

letter from the Department to those States regarding such fraud. The

indictment further alleges that after the Acting Attorney General re-

sisted Trump's requests, Trump repeatedly threatened to replace him.



The Government does not dispute that the indictment's allegations

regarding the Justice Department involve Trump's use of official

power. The allegations in fact plainly implicate Trump's "conclusive

and preclusive” authority. The Executive Branch has "exclusive au-

thority and absolute discretion” to decide which crimes to investigate

and prosecute, including with respect to allegations of election crime.

Nixon, 418 U. S., at 693. And the President's "management of the Ex-

ecutive Branch” requires him to have "unrestricted power to remove

the most important of his subordinates”—such as the Attorney Gen-

eral—"in their most important duties.” Fitzgerald, 457 U. S., at 750.



The indictment's allegations that the requested investigations were

shams or proposed for an improper purpose do not divest the President

of exclusive authority over the investigative and prosecutorial func-

tions of the Justice Department and its officials. Because the Presi-

dent cannot be prosecuted for conduct within his exclusive constitu-

tional authority, Trump is absolutely immune from prosecution for the

alleged conduct involving his discussions with Justice Department of-

ficials. Pp. 19–21.



(ii) The indictment next alleges that Trump and his co-conspira-

tors "attempted to enlist the Vice President to use his ceremonial role

at the January 6 certification proceeding to fraudulently alter the elec-

tion results.” App. 187, Indictment ¶10(d). In particular, the indict-

ment alleges several conversations in which Trump pressured the Vice

President to reject States' legitimate electoral votes or send them back

to state legislatures for review.



Whenever the President and Vice President discuss their official re-

sponsibilities, they engage in official conduct. Presiding over the Jan-

uary 6 certification proceeding at which Members of Congress count

the electoral votes is a constitutional and statutory duty of the Vice

President. Art. II, §1, cl. 3; Amdt. 12; 3 U. S. C. §15. The indictment's

allegations that Trump attempted to pressure the Vice President to

take particular acts in connection with his role at the certification pro-

ceeding thus involve official conduct, and Trump is at least presump-

tively immune from prosecution for such conduct.



The question then becomes whether that presumption of immunity

is rebutted under the circumstances. It is the Government's burden to

rebut the presumption of immunity. The Court therefore remands to

the District Court to assess in the first instance whether a prosecution

involving Trump's alleged attempts to influence the Vice President's

oversight of the certification proceeding would pose any dangers of in-

trusion on the authority and functions of the Executive Branch. Pp.

21–24.



(iii) The indictment's remaining allegations involve Trump's in-

teractions with persons outside the Executive Branch: state officials,

private parties, and the general public. In particular, the indictment

alleges that Trump and his co-conspirators attempted to convince cer-

tain state officials that election fraud had tainted the popular vote

count in their States, and thus electoral votes for Trump's opponent

needed to be changed to electoral votes for Trump. After Trump failed

to convince those officials to alter their state processes, he and his co-

conspirators allegedly developed and effectuated a plan to submit

fraudulent slates of Presidential electors to obstruct the certification

proceeding. On Trump's view, the alleged conduct qualifies as official

because it was undertaken to ensure the integrity and proper admin-

istration of the federal election. As the Government sees it, however,

Trump can point to no plausible source of authority enabling the Pres-

ident to take such actions. Determining whose characterization may

be correct, and with respect to which conduct, requires a fact-specific

analysis of the indictment's extensive and interrelated allegations.



The Court accordingly remands to the District Court to determine in

the first instance whether Trump's conduct in this area qualifies as

official or unofficial. Pp. 24–28.



(iv) The indictment also contains various allegations regarding

Trump's conduct in connection with the events of January 6 itself. The

alleged conduct largely consists of Trump's communications in the

form of Tweets and a public address. The President possesses "ex-

traordinary power to speak to his fellow citizens and on their behalf.”

communications are likely to fall comfortably within the outer perim-

eter of his official responsibilities. There may, however, be contexts in

which the President speaks in an unofficial capacity—perhaps as a

candidate for office or party leader. To the extent that may be the case,

objective analysis of "content, form, and context” will necessarily in-

form the inquiry. Snyder v. Phelps, 562 U. S. 443, 453. Whether the

communications alleged in the indictment involve official conduct may

depend on the content and context of each. This necessarily factbound

analysis is best performed initially by the District Court. The Court

therefore remands to the District Court to determine in the first in-

stance whether this alleged conduct is official or unofficial. Pp. 28–30.



(3) Presidents cannot be indicted based on conduct for which they

are immune from prosecution. On remand, the District Court must

carefully analyze the indictment's remaining allegations to determine

whether they too involve conduct for which a President must be im-

mune from prosecution. And the parties and the District Court must

ensure that sufficient allegations support the indictment's charges

without such conduct. Testimony or private records of the President

or his advisers probing such conduct may not be admitted as evidence

at trial. Pp. 30–32.



(c) Trump asserts a far broader immunity than the limited one the

Court recognizes, contending that the indictment must be dismissed

because the Impeachment Judgment Clause requires that impeach-

ment and Senate conviction precede a President's criminal prosecu-

tion. But the text of the Clause does not address whether and on what

conduct a President may be prosecuted if he was never impeached and

convicted. See Art. I, §3, cl. 7. Historical evidence likewise lends little

support to Trump's position. The Federalist Papers on which Trump

relies concerned the checks available against a sitting President; they

did not endorse or even consider whether the Impeachment Judgment

Clause immunizes a former President from prosecution. Transforming

the political process of impeachment into a necessary step in the en-

forcement of criminal law finds little support in the text of the Consti-

tution or the structure of the Nation's Government. Pp. 32–34.



(d) The Government takes a similarly broad view, contending that

the President enjoys no immunity from criminal prosecution for any

action. On its view, as-applied challenges in the course of the trial

suffice to protect Article II interests, and review of a district court's

decisions on such challenges should be deferred until after trial. But

questions about whether the President may be held liable for particu-

lar actions, consistent with the separation of powers, must be ad-

dressed at the outset of a proceeding. Even if the President were ulti-

mately not found liable for certain official actions, the possibility of an

extended proceeding alone may render him "unduly cautious in the

discharge of his official duties.” Fitzgerald, 457 U. S., at 752, n. 32.



The Constitution does not tolerate such impediments to "the effective

functioning of government.” Id., at 751. Pp. 34–37.



(e) This case poses a question of lasting significance: When may a

former President be prosecuted for official acts taken during his Pres-

idency? In answering that question, unlike the political branches and

the public at large, the Court cannot afford to fixate exclusively, or

even primarily, on present exigencies. Enduring separation of powers

principles guide our decision in this case. The President enjoys no im-

munity for his unofficial acts, and not everything the President does is

official. The President is not above the law. But under our system of

separated powers, the President may not be prosecuted for exercising

his core constitutional powers, and he is entitled to at least presump-

tive immunity from prosecution for his official acts.

That immunity applies equally to all occupants of the Oval Office. Pp. 41–43.

91 F. 4th 1173, vacated and remanded.